Music of Latin America # 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Music of Latin America # 4 - Essay Example itional instruments used for all their shamanistic rituals are the violin (sekeseke) drums (ehuru) deer- bone flute (muhusemoi) and huge rattle called ‘hebu mataro’ which is considered to be the most important of them. The spiritual significance of these instruments especially the rattle is to restore health to a very sick person. Ceremonial songs considered to be magical are sung by religious leaders and elders signify protection and healing. The Warao lullabies are melodic rhythmic patterns which signify their cultural beliefs and way of life. These songs are very important to teach their children the Warao culture and tradition and make them more familiar to their environment. One of the traditional Shamanistic rituals in Warao is wailing of women when someone dies. During this ritual, the corpse is placed in a hammock and a mourner sits beside it. The other mourners radiate from this point around the body and start wailing in a semi – spoken and semi- musical voices. (Briggs, Charles L. 1993) They lament about fate wailing and singing alternately. Almost about 20 women wail simultaneously and this could go on for a period of about 30 to 40 minutes and the entire experience is a cacophony because it is not done together. (Briggs, 1992b) The musical culture of the Warao tribes living in the Orinoco Basin developed and took shape as they travelled through the rainforests for their work. The songs were made up on the spot and comprised mostly of important occurrences and incidents in their lives. Many of their songs were religious in nature as they invoked the blessings of the spirits. They had separate songs for every occasion. They had songs for births, lullabies, dances, cutting down trees, deaths, coming of age, marriage, healing and protection and also for the election of their political and religious leaders. Shamanism seems to be the centrifugal point around which the musical culture of the Warao’s revolves. Music finds its way into every aspect

My Future Carrer Essay Example for Free

My Future Carrer Essay How do you see your own future career, what would you like to happen and how do you think your life will change in the coming years? There are various options open nowadays. The problem of choosing the future profession has always been very important. The profession a person chooses in many ways determines his/her future life. To make a right choice first of all you should understand what you like to do. Usually there are several factors that influence the decision of young people. They concern material and spiritual aspects of the future career. It is generally believed that profession should be both prestigious and interesting. I can’t, but agree with this statement. Today the most popular profession is economics. This profession is both prestigious and interesting. From graduating from economic faculty it is possible to find good job. And of course it is well-paid. All this factors are important for me. I was born in a family of a businessman. Since my early childhood I watched the problems and difficulties in doing business in our country. On the other hand I saw how happy my dad was when he signed the profitable contracts, started a new firm. He really got satisfaction of a job well-done and gave a sense of achievement behind the clinching of an important deal. So I have decided to start my own business when I’m grown up. For this I have made up my mind to get serious about economics. I think that I have all needed skills to become a good businessman. As I’m on the go all my life, because of studying and my hobbies, I am very active and hard-working. Maybe I’m not restrained or patient, but I think, that employer will be impressed with my ambitions. I’m well-educated and creative. Nowadays you often find that the top executive in a company is a woman. I want to be one of them. I think that I have all leadership qualities to be the best. I think that in future I will attain all my goals and will really have my nose to the grindstone. As In the past, people do not have many choices about their future job. They usually continue their fathers and grandfathers jobs and careers. Nowadays, there are multiple of choices about the future job and they are independent of the family career. Each child now has a dream of his own future job and can be clearly appeared in their choices of their toys. One wants to be a doctor, other wants to be an engineer, other wants to be a teacher and so on. I thing when ones gets older and moves on the levels of education, it becomes not easy to choose the future job. More thinking comes about making the right choice and setting the criteria of choosing. I have thoughts about my future job, where I can express myself and become successful. I want in my future job to be able to use my initiative, feel freedom and independent, gain self satisfaction and get well-paid. Moreover, I want to have an excitement and continuance interest rather than routine job, which brings boredom and kills motivations and developments. I would like my future job to be in the education sector. I want to start my job as teacher, which I believe that it is an important job. It is connected to the humans’ mind that makes them different from all other creatures. It is also considered one of the oldest careers that known by the human. In addition, it is one of the main aims of the God’s messengers. One of the main objectives in my future job is continuation of development and gets more different and higher positions in the education sector. I think that will be more challengeable and exciting and give the chance to be more initiative. In conclusion, I want to be a successful in my future job and be an active person to ward the development of my country. I want be useful to my family make them proud and happy. Now, I am studying hard to get more knowledge and gain different skills to meet my objectives.

Comparing the Native Characters in Colonial Literature to the European

When European colonial authors introduced us to the native, they created the native; the native character became more real to European readers than the actual inhabitants of the new world. The natives' overwhelming otherness eclipsed any individuality that might have been found among them. The native was childish, incapable of reason, and savagely unchristian, or as Lord Cromer described him, a being which "generally acts, speaks and thinks in a manner that is exactly opposite to the European" (qtd. in Said 39). The European world was first given Robinson Crusoe's Friday as a native or, more accurately, the native. Friday could easily (and accurately in the European's mind) be substituted for any non-European. Friday, and the native that he represented, continues to exist in post-colonial literature. Part of him, his otherness, is expressed in the new European character. Another part of him, his nativeness, continues to be expressed in the new native. The legacy of the other did not die with colonialism. It continues to be a presence in post-colonial literature, only now the other has white skin. Winterbottom/Clarke/Meers/Pilkings is just one character: the other, the European, the white man. Post-colonial literature's example white man is a reincarnation of Friday; his traits may be slightly different, but he remains the same in that he is overwhelmingly opposite from the important individuals found in the literature. Just as the native and the concept of the native was invented by the Europeans, the European has been invented by the new generation of post-colonial authors. In Arrow of God, Chinua Achebe creates Captain T. K. Winterbottom and Tony Clarke, white officers portrayed as mere unemotional bureaucratic cogs in the co... ...n. The European's once prized light skin has become a sign of illness and he has adopted a stereotypical insensitivity that prevents him from being human. Colonial literature's other, the native, did not end with colonialism. Instead, part of him became the new other, the post-colonial European, while the other part of him remained the native and became the new self. The colonial native is the root of post-colonial characters and, as such, continues to be an integral part of post-colonial literature. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. London: Penguin Books, 1985. Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1994. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Soyinka, Wole. Death and the King's Horseman. New York: Norton, 2003. Comparing the Native Characters in Colonial Literature to the European When European colonial authors introduced us to the native, they created the native; the native character became more real to European readers than the actual inhabitants of the new world. The natives' overwhelming otherness eclipsed any individuality that might have been found among them. The native was childish, incapable of reason, and savagely unchristian, or as Lord Cromer described him, a being which "generally acts, speaks and thinks in a manner that is exactly opposite to the European" (qtd. in Said 39). The European world was first given Robinson Crusoe's Friday as a native or, more accurately, the native. Friday could easily (and accurately in the European's mind) be substituted for any non-European. Friday, and the native that he represented, continues to exist in post-colonial literature. Part of him, his otherness, is expressed in the new European character. Another part of him, his nativeness, continues to be expressed in the new native. The legacy of the other did not die with colonialism. It continues to be a presence in post-colonial literature, only now the other has white skin. Winterbottom/Clarke/Meers/Pilkings is just one character: the other, the European, the white man. Post-colonial literature's example white man is a reincarnation of Friday; his traits may be slightly different, but he remains the same in that he is overwhelmingly opposite from the important individuals found in the literature. Just as the native and the concept of the native was invented by the Europeans, the European has been invented by the new generation of post-colonial authors. In Arrow of God, Chinua Achebe creates Captain T. K. Winterbottom and Tony Clarke, white officers portrayed as mere unemotional bureaucratic cogs in the co... ...n. The European's once prized light skin has become a sign of illness and he has adopted a stereotypical insensitivity that prevents him from being human. Colonial literature's other, the native, did not end with colonialism. Instead, part of him became the new other, the post-colonial European, while the other part of him remained the native and became the new self. The colonial native is the root of post-colonial characters and, as such, continues to be an integral part of post-colonial literature. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. London: Penguin Books, 1985. Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1994. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Soyinka, Wole. Death and the King's Horseman. New York: Norton, 2003.

Company Transaction Processing System

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTINGS INTRODUCTION As today’s inventions became more advance, the influence of such inventions to the people brought two classes. These are the good and bad influence. The bad influence is that young generation now became addicted in online games and was became lazy in doing home works and the like. While the good influence is that offices in many departments that use computerized system their works become easier and faster since it eliminates the paper works and the workload of the employees too.Now, a most efficient, flexible and reliable system has become a must for any institution and organization. In order to achieve the improvement of the system that the department uses, the need to understand the system within the office is very important. From this period; we are living in the era where technology is more important in the progression of human life. The convenience of technology that everyone can achieve is very useful in everyday life. And even today, the very fast evolution of technology is continuing day by day.The effectiveness of technology plays an important role in many industries world wide. In business, schools or even individual can enjoy the convenience came from technology. All the things that seems to be impossible in the past now it is very easy to achieve because of the presence of technology Try to imagine a college department with a most number of employees but still use a manual transaction system? One of the problems of many schools nowadays is the manual process of transaction system.With the use of the technology, each step by step process of a manual transaction system will reduce and also lessen the time to be consumed. That’s why the proponents proposed an automated transaction system to improve the transactions that may acquire by the use of technology. The automated transaction system makes the assessment and payment faster; it also covers accurate input of employee information incl uding the evaluation of grades, subjects and scheduling. The system also covers the generating of employee identification together with the employee number in the form of barcode font style.This ID can be used in transaction by scanning his/her ID number to be automatically assessed. This barcode technology is very faster and suitable for this transaction. Short Message Service (SMS) is also a very good product of the innovation of technology. Nowadays it is very useful to the public because of its ability in long distance communication. Less effort than from past when we are using letter just to communicate with some relative miles and miles away from us. The proponents decided to use sms technology to have a better enhancement for the proposed system.The functionality of this technology is to provide a notification for the employees according to the updates of the school and also checking the grades of the employee. It would be possible with the use of the Short Message Service Te chnology that would be sending to the employees registered on the system. The proponents of this study are eager to improve the manual system of transaction and make the process faster and accurate. The proposed system is intended for Colegio De Sebastian to upgrade their existing transaction process. The proposed system aims to improve the process of maintaining and storing data to maintain its security.The system will also help the administrator speed up the processing of accurate information to minimized time wasted in the present system by proposing a â€Å"Company Transactions Processing System† This chapter covers the background of the study, statement of the problem, conceptual framework, objectives of the study and scope and delimitation. 1. 1 Background of the Study In January 20, 2011, Colegio de Sebastian was founded by a couple who are known philanthropists and educators. Its primary purpose is to offer accessible quality education in the tertiary level, the coupl e’s dream for the young people of Pampanga.It was organized as a non-sectarian, non-stock, non-profit corporation oriented towards service to the community. The initial programs in the school of Business and Accountancy are Bachelor of Science in Accountancy, Bachelor of Science in Business Administration with majors in Financial Management and Human Resource Development Management. The initial program in the School of Arts and Sciences is Bachelor of Science in Psychology and in the school of Hospitality Management, Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management. The proponents proposed a system entitled â€Å"Company Transactions Processing System†.This system makes the transaction to be faster and more accurate than the manual process. It also lessens the manpower during the operation of the transaction. This study is intended to help our locale in their transaction system by providing an automated transaction that satisfies the needs of the locale. 1. 2 Sta tement of the Problem The proponents conducted an investigation to have a better solution in the problems being encountered during transaction. With the help of the information gathered through actual experience and observation, the proponents have known of various problems and lead to this study.This study is conducted to develop a better solution and provide a system that can help the locale from the problem that may encounter during transaction. 1. 3. 1 General Problem Colegio De Sebastian is using Manual transaction system that lead to inaccurate information, not reliable, less security and slow process of transaction 1. 3. 2 Specific Problems Specifically, the study sought answers to the following problems. 1. The information of the outsourced parties is not well organized. 2. The paper based transaction system is time consuming. 3. Calculations on transaction with the complexity is not accurate 4.Retrieval of needed information is not punctual. 5. It requires too many employee s to assess and manage different transaction from different departments. 1. 3 Objectives of the Study This study will not be possible without the presence of goals or objectives. These objectives will serve as guides in determining the proposed of the proponents has been achieve. 1. 3. 1 General Objective The study aims to develop a â€Å"Company Transactions Processing System† that will replace the existing system providing more advantages, security, faster and reliable transaction. 1. 3. 2 Specific ObjectivesThe specific objectives of the proposed system entitled â€Å"Company Transactions Processing System† are: 1. To provide an efficient system that can maintain and manage the information of outsourced parties. 2. To provide a system that can lessen the time consumed in different transactions. 3. To provide an accurate system that accurately computes transactions with vital calculations. 4. To provide a system that can sends the information needed faster and more o rganized. 5. To reduce the employee in maintaining the records of transactions and the said third parties involved. 1. Assumptions The assumption of the study will determine that you expect to happen in your study. It is a partial conclusion that the proponents stated throughout the development of the study. The proponents’ assumptions are as follows: The following are the assumption of the proponents 1. The system will maintain and manage the information from the employees 2. The system will lessen the time of being consume in transaction 3. The system will accurately compute complex transactions.. 4. The system will send information needed by other departments in their transactions. 5.The system will reduce the employee in maintaining and operating the transaction process. 1. 5 Conceptual Framework of the Study The proponents were able to get and give process and flow of the proposed study and how it reacts with the user. It shows the input variables the processed involved in generating the expected output of the system. The paradigm of the existing system and the proposed system is presented below. Figure 1. 1 shows the paradigm of the manual transaction method of the school. The Output is the Existing Transaction System which Colegio De Sebastian is currently using. Output Manual Transactions System ProcessManual: Gathering of data Record keeping Computation of payments Input Outsourced parties information Employee information Transactions information Evaluation Output Manual Transactions System Process Manual: Gathering of data Record keeping Computation of payments Input Outsourced parties information Employee information Transactions information Evaluation Figure 1. 1 Paradigm of the Existing System Figure 1. 2 composed of three boxes for the input, process and the output. All the information is saved on the database to keep and manipulates properly the information. Output refers to the Company Transactions Processing System OutputCompany Transac tions System for Colegio de Sebastian Output Company Transactions System for Colegio de Sebastian Process Data interpretation Integration of data into the system Computerized assessment of information Computerized computation of payments Generate reports Process Data interpretation Integration of data into the system Computerized assessment of information Computerized computation of payments Generate reports Input Outsourced parties Information Registration Forms Employee’s transactions information Company other transactions information Input Outsourced parties Information Registration Forms Employee’s transactions informationCompany other transactions information Evaluation Evaluation Figure 1. 2 Paradigm of the Proposed System 1. 6 Significance of the Study The proposed system will be useful in our locale â€Å"Colegio de Sebastian† which helps eradicate the usage of the existing manual methods. The proponents believed that it will provide speed, efficiency, e ffectiveness in their transaction process. It will provide speed in Assessment of the employees, security and user-friendliness in mind. 1. 6. 1 Economic Significance Every school or company has the initiative to maximize their efficiency to save time, money, and increase growth.The proposed system lessens the man power because the system itself can automatically assess the subject of the employees. There is no need to hire personnel who will manually assess the subject of the employees. 1. 6. 2 Educational Significance This study will be significant to Proponents to improve their skills and it will help them practice and be able to share their study to future proponents. The system also offer an improvement of the school transaction, in that case even the professor, employee and the employees can acquire deeper knowledge to cope up in changing the old way of their transaction rocess. 1. 6. 3 Social Significance The system’s easy to use interface, speed, accuracy, efficiency and effectiveness can help the user gain confidence, lessen effort and for a faster transaction process that will help them perform well in work. Having an organized and automated system in any school is one factor to have a smooth operation. Having this system, the school can strongly monitor the transaction of every employee which turns provides a peace of mind. 1. 6. 4 Technological Significance Computerization in the business or even in school today has become the current trend today.Many industries rely on the power that computers have to offer. And with the study, many schools will have to initiative to revolutionize their systems for their own advantage. We all know that technology is frequently changing and reshaping our life. The use of barcode, kiosk and Shot Message Service are integrated in this study to deliver different enhancement that will be beneficial to the employees, teachers and employee. 1. 7 Scope and Delimitations The scope and delimitations of the proposed s ystem entitled â€Å"Company Transactions Processing System† are emphasized in this section.The proposed system has an ability to manage and manipulate the information of the employee. This system uses database in keeping the record and have an assurance that the information is secured from the directory. The proposed system can automatically assess the subject of the employees by scanning their employee identification and through the use of kiosk the employees can choose those subjects they want to enroll. This scope makes the transaction system more convenient to the employee and to the employees because it is just a self service in the part of the employee.The system has a different level of access. The system administrator is the one who manage and maintain the overall operation; he can access both the server and client side. While the Registrar, Accounting, Professor and the Employee has limited access in the system. The registrar can only access the registering matters like inputting of employee profile and maintaining the assessment of the subject. The accounting can only access with regards in the collecting of fees, he can access the payment of the fee from the employees.The professor access in the system is the posting of grades of the employees and lastly the employees can only access the kiosk part of the system which provides an auto assessment of their subjects with the use of barcode that is embedded in their id. Each system that had been developed has its own limitations and weaknesses that the user must know. The following is the limitation of the proposed system. In the part of the employee, any lost or misplacement of Employees Identification are subjects for replacement. The employees are the responsible to avail the new Employee Identification.The system cannot send any messages to the employees who has no cell phone and to the employees who are not register on the system itself. It is not responsible for the delay of messages and n etwork weak signals. Such incident will be part of the network provider. The system is dependent on the electricity. If power failure occurs, all the system operation will terminate. Even the sending of SMS will temporarily unavailable. The system ID generator has a limited caption and image you can enter to the ID, five captions with two images in the front and also five caption and two images in the back.The Design of the ID is depended on how the users design the ID. 1. 8Operational Definition of Terms There are different terms that the proponents used; the following are the definition of the operational terms that the proponents used. Data – are distinct pieces of information usually formatted in special way. Data can exist in variety of forms – as numbers, or text on piece of paper, as bit or bytes stored in electronic memory Database – is an integrated collection of logically-related records or files consolidated into a common pool that provides data for o ne or more multiple uses.One way of classifying databases involves the type of content, for example: bibliographic, full-text, numeric, and image. Local Area Network (LAN)–A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building Module – is a self-contained component of a system, which has a well-defined interface to other components Software – The programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the functioning of the hardware and direct its operation.Structure Query Language (SQL)–A standardized query language for maintaining and accessing database information, it support distributed databases and allows user on a network to access same data simultaneously. User interface – In the industrial design field of human-machine interaction, the user interface is (a place) where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interact ion between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation.

Family Violence Essay

Family violence is not a new phenomenon, as it has essentially existed since the beginning of time. Only in modern times, however have societies begun to recognize violence and family members as a social problem (Barnett, Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2005). For many years, the social problem of family violence had not only been heavily ignored, but for a number of years, had not been fully understood. For example, family violence takes many forms and has a number of different names. Family violence, also known as domestic violence, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV), is defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, or cohabitation (Barnett et al., 2005). Moreover, family violence includes but is not limited to physical abuse such as kicking and punching, but also includes sexual and emotional abuse. Emotional abuse includes controlling or domineering; intimi dation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (neglect) and economic deprivation and in many cases is more severe than physical abuse. The changing visibility of family violence is the leading indicator of the necessity of an historical approach to understanding it (Gordon, 2002). Over the past few years, the general public in the US has become familiar with family violence through news coverage of highly publicizes cases, TV programs and movies. At the same time, researchers have made great strides in recognizing the scope of family violence and the context in which it occurs (Barnett et al., 2005). As sociologists know of it today, family violence is politically, historically and socially constructed (Gordon, 2002). In terms of power relations and functionalism, family violence arises out of power struggles in which members of the family are contesting for resources and benefits (Gordon, 2002). Furthermore, these contests arise from both personal aspirations and change social norms and conditions (Gordon, 2002). It is therefore important to know that family violence cannot be understood outside the context of the overall politics of the family. Historical developments that continue to influence family violence include prominent changes in the situation of women and children (Gordon, 2002). It is imperative therefore for a historical analysis of family violence to include a view of the changing power relations among classes, sexes, and generations (Gordon, 2002). Political attitudes have also affected research â€Å"findings† about family violence. Both psychological and sociological interpretations in the debate often ignore the gender politics of family violence issues, and the gender implications of policy recommendations, not only when women or girls were the victims, but also when women were the abusers (Gordon, 2002). Over the past 80 years, four major types of family violence have be studied and examined; child abuse, child neglect, sexual abuse of children and wife beating. In later years, there have been other forms of family violence, which include sibling abuse (which is the most common form of family violence), and elder abuse (Gordon, 2002). Family violence has had many different faces historically, and has been classified in five different stages with different focuses periodically. The first was the 19th century and child saving era, which was from 1876-1910. During this era, there was anti-cruelty to children movement that was influenced by the temperance movement. Emphasis on the cruelty done to kids was placed on the immigrant poor and never the respectable classes (Gordon, 2002). The progressive era was followed by a child saving era which lasted from 1910 -1930 which lead to an emphasis on child neglect. During this era, there was a decrease emphasis on alcohol and identified other forms of stress such as poverty, unemployment and illness (Gordon, 2002). The depressed followed the progressive era where there was an increased defense for the conventional nuclear family. During the World War world war 2 era and the 1950’s child neglect was increasingly seen as emotional neglect and the 1960s and 70s was a period of increased medicalization of family violence which, as sociologists have identified can have extremely negative affects (Gordon, 2002). A lot of attention to family violence began to gain increasing importance during the time of the women’s movement in the 1970s as a concern about wives being beaten by their husbands. Interestingly enough, there was a rise in what some call â€Å"the men’s movement† as response to the problem of domestic violence against men, which is largely omitted in the feminist theory (Barnett et al., 2005). Some flaws in the feminist approach to family violence (as well as others that will be further discussed in the paper), is that it has reduced domestic violence, especially against men as their likelihood of being killed by a female intimate partner has decreased six-fold (Barnett et al. , 2005). OVERVIEW OF SEMINAR READINGS: WEEK 2 Symbolic interactionism is a perspective which seeks to understand how people interact with others (Ingoldsby, Smith & Miller, 2004a). The theory claims that people interact with one another by interpreting each other’s actions (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Their response is based on the meanings that they attach to such actions (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Thus, human interaction is largely mediated by the use of symbols (Karp & Yoels, 1993). Authors Karp & Yoels (1993) discuss notions of the generalized other and looking-glass self as examples of symbols with which we interact. In one instance, the self emerges from common expectations that others have about social norms within a particular society (Karp & Yoels, 1993). But in another instance, people will self-evaluate themselves against the perceived judgments of others and act accordingly (Karp & Yoels, 1993). The emphasis on symbols brings attention to the roles people play. Role-playing is a key mechanism that allows people to see another person’s perspective to understand what an action might mean (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). In sum, no situation is static but rather contextual (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Individuals then through their own behavior and interaction with others, construct their individual social realities (Karp & Yoels, 1993; Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Situating family violence within a framework of symbolic interactionism is important in that it provides a context within which people develop their personal interpretations of events. Therefore to understand family violence requires knowledge of the processes through which such interpretations emerge. Rosen (1996) and Mullaney (2007) illustrate ways in which interpretations of the self are at the core of domestic violence. Their findings are essential for understanding how family violence continues over time. Findings also help to account for the formation and preservation of culture and social roles in society. In one respect, interpretations of the self are mediated through two primary orientations of communication: processes of seduction an d processes of entrapment (Rosen, 1996). This first is characterized by forces that tend to draw women into their relationships (romantic fantasies and romantic fusion) and the second by forces that keep them there: survival tactics, cognitive dissonance, roller coaster relationships, traumatic bonding, Romeo and Juliet effects, and peer-family collusion (Rosen, 1996). For example, within the framework of symbolic interactionism, processes of seduction can be loosely defined as a dependent emotional state (Rosen, 1996). Individuals then, connect with partners because they internalize similar understandings of weakness and dependency to communicate feelings of love (Rosen, 1996). The interplay of such communication patterns facilitates an environment of spousal abuse that is likely to continue so long as interaction is repetitive (Rosen, 1996). Processes of entrapment on the other hand, can be argued to demonstrate the externalization of the communication patterns found in processes of seduction. Once meanings of dependency and weakness have been internalized as being both legitimate and appropriate within the context of one’s relationship, these women rationalize such behavior as the norm and thus stay. Survival tactics for example illustrate these efforts, by which women actively engage towards relationship management of an abusive relationship, otherwise internalized as an acceptable social norm. In contrast, Mullaney (2007) identifies low self-esteem as a correlate of men’s violent behavior. Domestic violence then, is a reaction to the attacks or perceived attacks on men’s self-concept (Mullaney, 2007). Mullaney (2007) argues that men will most often justify, yet also minimize, excuse, or blame and offer no apology on account for their violence towards women. These categories serve as scripts through which perceptions of masculinity are restored (Mullaney, 2007). If threatened, masculinity evolves accordingly as men interpret the actions of those around them. For example, women’s irrational spending habits may undermine men’s role as financial provider (Mullaney, 2007). Men would argue that such habits do not align functionally with women’s domestic and social roles (Mullaney, 2007). By doing so, men’s responses are based on the meanings which they attach to such actions and reflect cultural expectations of gender difference. This is problematic because it helps promote and develop stereotypically gendered selves (Mullaney, 2007). Symbolic interactionism then, becomes useful in demonstrating how dominant ideologies of gender are enacted within the interactions of marital relationships, and lend to domestic violence in the process. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Feminist Theory The root of feminist theory begins with the inclusion of gender and power. Feminists argue that the distinctions between males and females are not inherent or functional; rather they are socially constructed to create and maintain male power in society and thus the family (Yllo, 1993). This sense of patriarchy reinforces traditional social roles and the relationship between the division of power and gender. The feminist perspective suggests that men use violence to retain their dominance or sense of control within the institution of the family. Thus, the feminist paradigm believes that domestic violence is utilized as another means of the social control of women, and takes roots at a personal, institutional, symbolic and material level. The application of a feminist lens to Rosen’s (1996) article allows for a very different approach to the processes of abduction and entrapment. The feminist perspective would likely explain that the forces drawing women into abusive relationshi ps were largely due to the social expectations of femininity and masculinity. The concept of romantic fantasies can be explored through gender identities. Here society portrays the male as being a strong, aggressive, independent individual and the female as a weak, docile individual that is largely dependant on their partner. For instance, the fantasy of Cinderella eludes that a man can protect a woman and save her from her problems. Feminists would suggest that women fall victim to these relationships due to the inequalities portrayed by traditional gender norms. Feminist theorists would likely explain the concept of romantic fusion as being due to the extremely controlling nature of husbands within a patriarchal marriage. This type of relationship is defined as Patriarchal Terrorism (Johnson, 1995). Here, the woman in the relationship would be forced to part with her individual characteristics and become completely devoted to her husband (Johnson, 1995). Furthermore, the husband may further restrict the identity of the woman by refusing to allow her to go to work or maintain friends outside of the actual relationship. The feminist lens would offer a slightly different interpretation of the processes that restrict women from escaping abusive relationships. Though women may still use coping mechanisms and adhere to other social forces, outlined by symbolic interactionaists, feminist theory suggests two main reasons why they stay in violent relationships. The first reason women stay in abusive relationships is fro the sake of their children (Emery, 2009). In cases such as these women will stay with the intent of maintaining some stability for their kids by trying keeping the family in tact. The other reasons women may stay are due to the normalization of gender norms in society. Feminist theory sees the root causes of intimate partner violence as a causation of living in a society that excuses aggressive male behaviours (Yllo, 1993). In other words, because these behaviours are so normative, some women may excuse the behavior and treat it as the norm. What is perceived as the norm also varies across culture. Even today, many cultures adhere to traditional hegemonic norms and strongly believe women should be completely subservient to their husbands. In cases such as this, abuse may be next to impossible to escape. The application of the feminist perspective to Mullaney’s (2007) article would allow for a similar analysis of the attitudes of men and their reasons for rationalizing their abusive behaviours. Mullaney (2007) suggests that men will often become violent due to low self-esteem and a perceived attack on their self-concept. The feminist lens would suggest that men become violent due to the inequalities in society that allow men an advantage position and with that gendered norms. Traditional hegemonic masculine norms suggest that men should be leaders that are strong, in control and tough. This is what the men in the study were trying to demonstrate. Whenever, they felt that their sense of masculinity was being challenged they would lash out in an attempt to regain control. The Control Model of Domestic Violence further provides a precise framework in displaying the interconnectedness between violence and other forms of coercive control. Simply put, the feminist theory suggests th at men use violence as a tactic of controlling their abused wives from participating in actions they have not sanctioned. Family Systems Theory The Family Systems theory provides a very unique, holistic perspective on the topic of violence in the family. This perspective describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities. Sociologist Ernest Burgess, best summarized this perspective when he stated that the family is more then just a definition; it is a living, super personality that has its essence in the interaction of its members (Ingoldsby, Smith & Miller, 2004b). Each member of the family plays a very important role in the overall functioning of the unit. When applied to the topic of violence in the institution of the family, this paradigm focuses on the family dynamics that contribute to domestic abuse. Subsequently less attention is focused on the individual perpetrating the violence and more attention is paid to the environment surrounding the violence and the role each character in the family plays. The Family Systems perspective offers a diverse interpretation of Rosen’s (1996) article on the processe s of abduction and entrapment. Family Systems Theorists differ with respect to how they feel that women are drawn into abusive relationships. This perspective identifies the connection between family goals, rules and control, and how together one can fully understand the development and causation of domestic abuse (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). For example in the article by Rosen (1996), it can be seen that by using family systems theory and studying familial interactions that certain females may be predisposed to the Cinderella and Beauty and the Beast paradigms. By looking at how their families’ function, one may be able to see the recycling effect due to unresolved or violent backgrounds these victimized individuals may come from. They may fall into a similar pattern from what they know at home, thereby examining the origins of this behavior and viewing the interconnectedness of how one internalizes family rules and ideas of control. Family System’s Theory offers a unique interpretation as to the role women play in becoming stuck in abusive relationships. In the stages preceding marriage, women will often date their partner, while simultaneously leading separate lives which consist of separate relations. As the commitment in a relationship increases, a couple begins to modify their individual social lives. In these types of situations, both men and women will often make more time for one another. This allows for the woman to feel appreciated and loved. As the relationship continues to progress, incidents of sexual jealously among men will often become a major source of conflict. This sense of possessiveness will ultimately cause the female to begin severing ties with male friends, and become increasingly committed to her future husband (Dobash & Dobash, 1993). Once married, dramatic changes occur and the extreme constriction of the wives social life takes place. With the introduction of children, comes the solidification of traditional gendered norms. Wives become extremely restricted and are left responsible for domestic work, such as the operation of the home (Dobash & Dobash, 1993). This may cause women to become increasingly dependant on their husbands. Subsequently, when sources of conflict occur, such as sexual jealousy, disputes over domestic duties or the expenditure of money, women may feel that they have no mobility and are stick in their current situation. Lastly, Family Systems Theory offers a holistic approach to the factors found in Mullaney’s (2007) article that cause men abuse their partners. Like Feminists, Family Systems theorists also believe that a very important aspect of traditional hegemonic masculinity is the element of control. However, unlike the feminist theory this approach attempts to understand what causes men to lose control. One explanation is that violent men often feel as if they may lose control, if they express their emotions, and thus hold it in. This in turn, causes violent men to generally be less emotionally reactive to stress on a day-to-day basis, then non-violent men (Umberson, Anderson, Williams, & Chen, 2003). Though in the short term, repression may be a successful coping strategy for reducing stress and anxiety, it causes the individual increased predicaments in the long run. Repression turns a violent man into a ticking-time bomb, one that is ready to explode in a violent manner. As a result, unlike feminist theories or social interactionism, family systems theory attempts to understand violence in the family by examining every interdependent part of the family. This includes the part both the victims and the offenders play, as well as the role everyday stresses and ones immediate environment have in contributing to family violence. Social Constructionism The methodological approach of Social Constructionism somewhat contrasts the assumptions of other theoretical perspectives that explore the issue of family violence. This paradigm suggests that the emergence of social problems is heavily due to how society, or more specifically institutions within society such as the mainstream media, portrays the issue at hand. Furthermore, social constructionists are often referred to as claims-makers, in that they present a claim that attempts to define the problem at hand. These claims can be heavily influenced by the agenda of the claims-maker, and will clearly identify the roles of the characters within the construct of the event. For instance, social constructionist’s will identify the perpetrator of the violence as the villain and the abused partner as the victim. The analysis of Rosen’s article surrounding the processes involved with seduction and entrapment, using a constructionist lens, provides a different interpretation to the ways women become bound to abusive relations. This perspective focuses on the subjective definitions that cause social problems and look to frame the phenomena of family violence as a social problem (Loseke, 2005). For instance, symbolic interactionism maintains that some abused women are bound to relationships by the process of cognitive dissonance. In cases such as this, women create discrepancies between what they believe the violence in the relationship signifies and what is actually happening. Constructionists on the other hand will focus very little time into how women construct the violent situations. Instead this perspective theorizes that these women have fallen victims to the violent, controlling nature of their abusive, villainous male partners (Loseke, 2005). The media or other primary claims-makers would further emphasis on violent verbal claims, visual images and specific behaviours. The reason of this is to evoke the emotions of society in order to persuade society that a troubled condition exists. The application of a constructions lens to Mullaney’s article on the reasons and types of rationalizations men provide for spousal abuse would allow theorists a better understanding of the ways victims and villains perceive family violence. The social constructionist lens suggests that men create their own social reality. This reality allows men to rationalize their behaviours. For example, in Mullaney’s (2007) article men would often minimize, justify or even deny abusive behaviours. These men will often excuse their behaviours by blaming social or external factors, such as alcohol abuse and the structural problems associated with poverty. These claims are sometimes able to persuade audiences and have allowed for some villains to be rehabilitated through the medicalization of their deviance. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionism is a key tool to examine domestic violence and its various intricacies. In essence, SI theory attempts to look at domestic violence from the viewpoint of individuals and their interactions with other people. This theory explains that individuals are engulfed in a symbolized environment, where the meanings for these symbols are altered within the course of interaction with other people (Karp & Yoels, 1993). For example, in the article â€Å"The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment†, SI is exemplified in the notion of cognitive dissonance. If a man were to slap his wife, while she may see this as an expression or symbol of love, many other people would see this as abuse. Therefore, the difference and meanings of symbols is very fluid, changing and subjective. Furthermore, SI theory is extremely effective in allowing researchers to understand and describe the individuals and their behaviors. It allows an understanding of how conflicts and complex behavioral patterns may arise in relationships, and how the interpretations of symbols may play a role in domestic disputes. This theory is quite effective in predicting future behavior (SI theory is advantageous to use as it grows and adapts to changes within society) and the roles they may play in the relationship either as a perpetrator or a victim, and the context in which these roles are played (Karp & Yoels, 1993). Rosen (1996) explains and clumps together several types of entrapment processes, such as placation or isolation, which predicts why and how females are coerced to remain in that sort of relationship. In addition, this theory does lack certain key elements in understanding domestic violence in its entirety. Due to the quite narrow scope of analysis, it is not very useful in understanding more macro levels of interactions such as groups or family systems. Another disadvantage is that it is quite difficult to apply the theory to other cultures, as its findings and hypotheses are based on a singular cultural atmosphere. Since monotony across cultures does not exist, a grand, overarching theory of domestic violence cannot be established, thereby making international or cross-cultural comparisons quite trying. Feminism Domestic violence as viewed through the feminist perspective focuses on the relationship between gender and the division of power in the familial framework (Yllo, 1993). This framework allows domestic abuse to be viewed in a way that is quite distinct from other theories. Feminist theory reveals that the social expectations regarding masculinity and femininity give relationships their shape, which may result in violent and abusive familial relations (Yllo, 1993). Feminist theory allows for the recognition of the effects of patriarchy in an abusive relationship, which is normally neglected in other theories. For instance, the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) looks at the violence in families, however it neglects several other aspects that could contribute to violence. CTS assumes that males and females are both equally violent in domestic relationships however, feminists note that CTS fails to account for the social expectations (Yllo, 1993). The social expectations of the division of power between a male and female within a relationship can give rise to the abuse and therefore, it cannot be assumed that males and females are equally violent and there are statistical measures that portray a gendered view. For example in the reading, â€Å"Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: two forms of violence against women† it can be seen that feminism denotes a difference in the types of violence that occur in domestic partnerships and further differentiates between common couple violence and patriarchal terrorism. This article notes that while CTS looks only at a limited number of control tactics, feminism can shed light to several other controlling methods. While, one can see that feminist theory brings up key defining points that are commonly overlooked, it does remain flawed in many respects. Feminist theory is difficult to apply to forms of domestic violence except for spousal abuse; specifically it only examines the abuse directed towards women. It automatically victimizes the female, and thereby situates the male in role of the villain. Another disadvantage of using solely feminist theory is that same-sex relationships are also not taken into account in their analyses, since it is assumed in feminist analysis that males are the perpetrators and use violence in the relationship to control women. For instance in the article, â€Å"The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment†, the analyses are based on the observation of heterosexual relationships. It did not look at how and if these processes of entrapment are applicable to homosexual relationships, for instance, do the Cinderella or Beauty and the Beast paradigm still adequately explain why homosexuals remain in violent relationships. It can be seen that there is a victim/perpetrator structure of the violent relationship, however it cannot be concluded that the processes that entrap victims in violent relationship are similar for same-sex couples. Family Systems Theory Family systems theory is a more holistic approach to understanding abuse within the family and further looks into how everyone within this framework is interconnected. Therefore, it explains how the individual affects the family system and vice versa. Through this analysis, one key contribution of this theory is that it paves the way of identifying the connection between family goals, rules and control, and how together one can fully understand the development and causation of domestic abuse (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). For example in the article by Rosen (1996), it can be seen that by using family systems theory and studying familial interactions, certain females may be predisposed to the Cinderella and Beauty and the Beast paradigms. By looking at how their families’ function, one may be able to see the recycling effect due to unresolved or violent backgrounds these victimized individuals may come from. They may fall into a similar pattern from what they know at home, thereby examining the origins of this behavior and viewing the interconnectedness of how one internalizes family rules and ideas of control. In the article, â€Å"Stay for the Children? Husband Violence, Marital Stability, and Children’s Behavior Problems† it clearly articulates that the violent behavior is internalized or externalized by children by prolonged exposure of violent behavior. The cyclical pattern of violence is foreseeable in these sorts of family arrangements, thereby being consistent with the idea that the system of family and the individuals within it are affected by each other on a constant basis. Family Systems theory also helps identify the different sorts of family structures in terms of their communicational boundaries and also allows the recognition of the various outcomes for a particular situation (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). Understanding that there are multiple outcomes for a given situation sets a more encompassing investigation and limits the likelihood of leaving something out or missing a key-contributing factor. It also allows a point of differentiation, and assumes that not all people react the same when the situation arises. This is important as it further provides the researcher with a defining and narrowing point as to which sort of family has a higher likelihood for domestic violence to occur and persist. Some of the downfalls of using family systems theory are that it is often criticized that it is too general and therefore, its application remains vague. The vagueness stretches from the assumption that systems theory is not a true theory rather it is a model that is more methodological than theoretical. Social Constructionism Social constructionist theory is a popular theory used to examine the roles played in an abusive relationship. An advantage of constructionist theory is that it clearly identifies the victim and the villain within the construct of the particular event (Loseke, 2005). Claims-makers are portrayed as practical actors constructing successful claims that reflect existing culture, and producing new culture of various social problems, specifically family violence. Social constructionism also allows domestic violence issues to be raised to the forefront and become more public, through the media. Through its application and explanations, this theory can be used to show how knowledge is socially constructed and how that knowledge reflects power and politics in family violence situations. Furthermore, it can give shape to other forms of domestic violence through counter claims making, such as husband abuse. Unlike other theories, constructionism is quite useful in examining other types of abuse and not singularly looking at wife abuse like feminism (Loseke, 2005). Constructionism allows for the understanding of child or elder abuse in the household. This theory also helps understand how people construct realities that keep them in abusive relationships, and how the relationship may be viewed differently to other people. In the article by Mullaney (2007), the construction of the men’s reality of the situation may differ from what abuse has occurred to the wife. The husband may reframe the abuse as â€Å"non-violent† or suggest that in that instance of abuse that it was not the â€Å"real him† that was carrying out the abuse. The disadvantages of using social constructionist theory are that due to the fact that individual events are a crucial component to the analysis, its subjectivity allows much room for debate. This makes it difficult to develop a theory that can encompass all the social realities and have it apply to all domestic violence cases cross-culturally. While looking at the article â€Å"Creating clients: Social problems work in a shelter for battered women,† it can be seen that shelters create an ideal client that one must fit in order to be allowed to be in the shelter. Creating this sort of criteria leaves out many other people who typically do not fit the stereotype or do not meet the conditions set out by the providers even though they are in need of assistance. Using this theory, it seems as though society has constructed an â€Å"ideal† victim and those who do not appear to fit this idealistic view of a victim are often rejected despite their need for immediate attention. Social constructionism therefore does not grant that everyone experiencing violence will be offered assistance, as this is based on the shelter’s perception of what a victim should look like. Family violence is a very serious social problem, and while social critics focus on how to achieve social change in this regard, social constructionists work to achieve new knowledge. Thus, social constructionism does not only pose a potentially dangerous approach to understanding and treatment of family violence, but it also does not examine objective conditions in their own right and seek to solve this social problem; essentially there are â€Å"no real truths† due to the subjectivity of the theory. REFLECTION Although much research and knowledge has been gathered in the field of family violence, there are ways in which this research must progress. Theoretically, family systems theory, symbolic interactionism, social constructionism, and feminist perspectives each have advantages in their application. As previously discussed, they each additionally have faults that hinder the study of family violence. We propose that a new theoretical framework be considered which essentially combines different aspects of each. For example, the notions of cause and effect associated with family systems, with an understanding of roles, salience and identity associated with symbolic interactionism. These theories can additionally be used to critically examine the core concepts of each. For example, how is the process of the looking-glass self influenced by the double-bind. Theoretical application in these ways may lead to new ways of perceiving family violence. The study of family violence also should attempt to increase its scope. Studies of family violence must adjust due to emerging and increasingly common alternative family forms; same-sex parent families and polygamous relationships are such examples. Methodologically, the study of family violence should attempt to attain a more culturally diverse sample. Many of the readings focused on this semester relied on a predominantly Caucasian sample, and studies focusing on different ethnicities would be beneficial. If researchers are to examine alternative family forms they must also establish a methodology that is sensitive to the stigma surrounding different identities, for example the emasculation associated with husband abuse, or the intersection of a homosexual identity within a context of family violence. Researchers should also establish a methodology that accounts for those patterns of violence considered â€Å"less severe† than others such as verbal abuse, as studies pertaini ng solely to physical violence are not enough. Practically, we suggest that researchers focus on early intervention through education. Researchers should aim for the implementation of programs directed to informing children and teenagers about this social issue. With increased awareness may come increased action towards ending the problem. These programs may assist a young person who is dealing with family violence, giving them an opportunity to speak to someone about it. Making the issue visible, giving it a platform to be discussed and early intervention is requisite to decreasing the frequency of family violence. The application of different aspects of the theories discussed this semester will be beneficial to the study of family violence as a whole. The fallacies of one theory may be redeemed through the usage of another. When evaluating such troubling social issues such as family violence, it is important to always think critically. In the cases of physical violence, we know that though symbolic interactionism, family members react to a situation based on their ability interpret the situation. So, it is important to understand the symbols the family uses to understand their interactions and behaviors. If a family is exposed to continuous physical abuse, in what ways do the family members interpret and internalize it? Why is it that many of the abused women came from families where no abuse was present and moreover continue the cycle of abuse? Where has the self worth gone or was it ever there in the first place? We now know some of the reasons why family violence is not reported and a lot of it has to do with the social stigma that is attributed both by those receiving the abuse and those who are the abusers. By building on – rather than challenging – the theories we can expand our knowledge and practically implement programs to assist those dealing with family violence. REFERENCES Barnett, O. W., Miller-Perrin, C. L., & Perrin, R. D. (2005). Family violence across the lifespan: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications. Dobash, R. E. & Dobash, R. (1993). Violence against wives. In B. Fox (Ed.), Familypatterns: Gender relations (pp. 299-317). Toronto: Oxford University Press. Emery, C. R. (2009). Stay for the children? Husband violence, marital stability, and children’s behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 71, 905-916. Gordon, L. (1989). The politics and history of family violence. 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Loseke (Ed.), Thinking about social problems: An introduction to constructionist perspective (pp. 75-96). London: Aldine Transaction. Mullaney, J. L. (2007). Telling it like a man: Masculinities and battering men’s accounts of their violence. Men and Masculinities, 10, 222-247. Rosen, K. (1996). The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment. In D. Cahn & S. Lloyd (Eds.), Family violence from a communication perspective (pp. 151-176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Umbe rson, D., Anderson, K., Williams, K., and Chen, M. (2003). Relation dynamics, emotion state, and domestic violence: a stress and masculinities perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 233-247. Yllo, K. (1993). Through a feminist lens: Gender, power, and violence. In R. Gelles & D. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 47-62). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.